Pangolin Conservation in India: Two Species Under Threat

India is one of the few countries where two distinct pangolin species share territory, and it is simultaneously one of the largest source countries for illegally trafficked pangolin scales. Despite strong legal protections, the Indian pangolin (Manis crassicaudata) and the Chinese pangolin (Manis pentadactyla) remain under relentless pressure from poaching, habitat loss, and a transnational black market that funnels scales to consumers in China and Vietnam.

For those working on pangolin conservation in South Africa, India's experience offers both cautionary lessons and promising models. The challenges are similar: under-resourced enforcement, vast rural landscapes where poaching goes undetected, and trafficking networks that exploit porous borders. Yet India's community-based programmes in tribal areas point to approaches that could complement the technology-driven strategies being developed in Gauteng and across southern Africa.

India's Two Pangolin Species

The Indian pangolin (Manis crassicaudata), also known as the thick-tailed pangolin, is the more widespread of the two species. It ranges across the plains, scrublands, dry deciduous forests, and agricultural landscapes of peninsular India, extending into Sri Lanka and Pakistan. Classified as Endangered on the IUCN Red List, it favours sandy soils and termite-rich habitats, making it vulnerable in areas undergoing agricultural conversion.

The Chinese pangolin (Manis pentadactyla) has a more restricted Indian range, confined primarily to the northeastern hill states: Assam, Meghalaya, Manipur, Mizoram, Nagaland, Sikkim, and Arunachal Pradesh. Listed as Critically Endangered by the IUCN, this species has suffered catastrophic declines across its broader range in China and Southeast Asia, making the northeast Indian populations increasingly significant for the species' survival.

The Scale of Trafficking

India ranks among the top source and transit countries for pangolin trafficking, according to TRAFFIC, the wildlife trade monitoring network. Indian enforcement agencies have seized thousands of kilograms of scales and hundreds of whole animals over the past decade, yet the actual trade volume is believed to be many times higher.

Trafficking routes follow established corridors. Scales from central and southern India move through Maharashtra, Gujarat, and Rajasthan toward international ports. In the northeast, pangolin products cross into Myanmar and onward to China and Vietnam, where scales are used in traditional medicine despite having no proven medicinal properties -- they are composed of keratin, the same protein found in human fingernails.

"The pangolin is the world's most trafficked mammal, and India is a critical front in the fight to save it. Without stronger enforcement and community engagement, we risk losing both species from significant parts of their range."

-- TRAFFIC India, summarising the state of pangolin trade across the subcontinent.

Demand is driven almost entirely by markets outside India. Organised criminal networks recruit local hunters, often from marginalised tribal communities, offering payments that are a fraction of the final street value of scales in East Asian markets.

Legal Protections: The Wildlife Protection Act 1972

Both Indian pangolin species are listed under Schedule I of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act of 1972, the highest level of domestic legal protection. Offences involving Schedule I species carry imprisonment of three to seven years plus fines. Internationally, all eight pangolin species were transferred to CITES Appendix I in 2016, banning all commercial trade.

However, legal protection alone has not been sufficient. Enforcement remains inconsistent, particularly in remote forested regions and northeastern states where border porosity facilitates smuggling. Many poaching cases are registered under weaker provisions, conviction rates in wildlife crime remain low, and forensic capacity for identifying pangolin species from seized scales is not yet available in all states.

Key Organisations and Research

Several institutions drive pangolin conservation in India. The Wildlife Institute of India (WII), based in Dehradun, has conducted radio-telemetry studies on Indian pangolin ecology, contributing essential baseline data on home range and habitat use. TRAFFIC India monitors the illegal trade, providing seizure analyses that inform enforcement priorities. The Wildlife Conservation Society (WCS) India programme supports field research and community-based conservation across multiple pangolin habitats.

Community-Based Conservation in Tribal Areas

One of the most promising developments is the emergence of community-based protection in tribal areas. In parts of Odisha, Chhattisgarh, and the northeastern states, indigenous communities have historically coexisted with pangolins, and some hold cultural beliefs that discourage harming them. Conservation organisations have built on these relationships, training community members as monitors and providing alternative livelihood incentives to reduce the appeal of poaching.

This approach carries relevance for South African conservation. The principle of engaging local communities as frontline protectors resonates with models being developed in Limpopo and KwaZulu-Natal for Temminck's ground pangolin (Smutsia temminckii). South Africa emphasises technology -- GPS tracking, thermal imaging, and data analytics -- while India's models rely more on social networks and local knowledge. Integrating both approaches offers clear potential.

Challenges: Habitat Loss, Electric Fences, and Persistent Poaching

Beyond poaching, agricultural expansion fragments pangolin habitat across peninsular India, reducing the termite and ant colonies on which pangolins depend. Urbanisation, road construction, and mining further erode suitable habitat.

Electric fences erected around fields to deter wild boar and elephants pose an overlooked threat. Pangolins forage nocturnally and rely on scent rather than sight, making them susceptible to electrocution. Reports from Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, and Andhra Pradesh indicate that pangolin deaths from electric fencing are not uncommon, though precise numbers remain elusive.

In the northeast, shifting cultivation (jhum) and conversion of forest to rubber, tea, and oil palm plantations degrade Chinese pangolin habitat. The combination of habitat loss and poaching is especially concerning given the species' Critically Endangered status.

Recent Seizures and Enforcement Actions

The Wildlife Crime Control Bureau (WCCB), working with state police and forest departments, has intercepted consignments exceeding 100 kilograms of scales in Maharashtra, Odisha, Tamil Nadu, and Assam. India participates in INTERPOL-coordinated operations, and bilateral intelligence sharing with Myanmar, Nepal, and Bangladesh has led to cross-border arrests. Nevertheless, conviction rates for wildlife crimes remain a persistent weakness.

Research Gaps and the Path Forward

Perhaps the most fundamental challenge facing pangolin conservation in India is the lack of reliable population data. No nationwide survey has been conducted for either species, and existing population estimates are largely extrapolated from localised studies. Without robust baseline numbers, it is impossible to accurately assess the rate of population decline or to measure the effectiveness of conservation interventions.

Ecological studies remain limited as well. Basic information about breeding biology, dispersal patterns, and dietary requirements in different habitat types is still being gathered. Camera-trap surveys and radio-telemetry studies have expanded in recent years, but coverage remains patchy relative to the vast range of both species.

Addressing these gaps will require sustained funding, coordination between state and central agencies, and a willingness to invest in long-term monitoring programmes. Emerging technologies such as environmental DNA (eDNA) sampling and AI-assisted camera-trap analysis, tools that AlphaPanga is helping to develop and deploy in the South African context, could significantly accelerate data collection if adapted for Indian conditions.

India's two pangolin species will not be saved by law alone. Effective conservation requires a combination of rigorous enforcement, community engagement, scientific research, and international cooperation. The scale of the challenge is immense, but so is the opportunity: India's diverse institutional landscape, strong legal framework, and growing network of dedicated conservationists provide a foundation on which meaningful progress can be built.