Pangolins occupy a curious ecological position. Their armoured bodies, secretive burrow-dwelling habits, and restricted diet make them specialists in the truest sense. Yet this specialisation has not isolated them from the web of smaller organisms that depend on, share space with, or exploit them. From blood-feeding ticks wedged beneath scales to owls nesting in abandoned dens, pangolins support an underappreciated community of associated species. Understanding these relationships is not merely academic — it has direct implications for rehabilitation, captive husbandry, disease surveillance, and conservation planning.
Ticks are the most extensively documented ectoparasites of pangolins. The hard-bodied tick family Ixodidae includes multiple genera recorded from both African and Asian pangolin species. In southern Africa, Amblyomma compressum has been most consistently found on ground pangolins (Smutsia temminckii), attaching preferentially under the chin, around the eyes, at the base of the tail, and in the soft skin folds between scale rows — the only areas accessible to a piercing mouthpart.
Haemaphysalis species feature more prominently in records from Sunda pangolins (Manis javanica) in Southeast Asia, while Ixodes species have been collected from Chinese pangolins (Manis pentadactyla). Tick burdens on confiscated animals are often high, reflecting the stress-related immune suppression that captured pangolins experience. In wild, healthy individuals, grooming behaviour — primarily vigorous rolling and scale-rattling — likely keeps burdens lower, though pangolins lack the manual dexterity to remove embedded ticks directly.
Mite diversity on pangolins is poorly characterised relative to ticks. Mange-causing Sarcoptes scabiei has been documented in severely compromised captive individuals, producing skin lesions under and around the scale margins. Several undescribed sarcoptiform and mesostigmatid mites have also been collected from pangolin scale surfaces and burrow debris, though formal species descriptions remain limited. This gap reflects the broader neglect of pangolin biology in veterinary entomology — a research area that has grown only modestly since increased seizure volumes began bringing more animals into rehabilitation centres after 2010.
Certain fly species deposit larvae in wounds or skin folds, causing myiasis in debilitated or injured pangolins. Calliphorid blow flies are the most common culprits in rehabilitation settings. Louse flies (Hippoboscidae) have been collected sporadically from Asian pangolin species but are not consistently associated. Fleas appear rarely in the literature, which is notable given the flea-rich environments pangolins share with other burrowing mammals in Africa.
The ticks found on pangolins carry genuine pathogen risks. Rickettsia species, Anaplasma, Ehrlichia, and Borrelia have all been detected in ticks removed from pangolins in parts of Africa and Asia. The illegal wildlife trade amplifies these risks considerably: pangolins packed together in unhygienic conditions, often alongside other species, provide ideal conditions for tick dispersal and pathogen transmission to handlers, buyers, and end consumers.
Research published following the COVID-19 pandemic brought renewed attention to pangolins as potential intermediate hosts or amplifiers for novel coronaviruses, though the consensus shifted toward bats as the primary reservoir. What the episode made clear is that pangolin-associated parasites and microbiome communities deserve systematic surveillance as part of broader wildlife health monitoring — not only for pangolin conservation but for pandemic preparedness frameworks.
Ground pangolins in southern Africa are accomplished diggers but they also frequently occupy burrows excavated originally by aardvarks (Orycteropus afer). Aardvark burrows are extensive, well-structured, and thermally stable — properties that make them attractive to a wide range of secondary occupants. Pangolins modify and extend these tunnels, and the resulting structures become microhabitat nodes in the landscape.
Camera trap studies around active and abandoned pangolin burrows in South Africa and Zimbabwe have recorded a striking diversity of secondary users. Warthogs (Phacochoerus africanus) use larger burrow chambers for shelter and farrowing. Cape porcupines (Hystrix africaeaustralis) occupy tunnels abandoned by pangolins, often expanding them substantially. Bat-eared foxes (Otocyon megalotis) den in smaller side tunnels, and African wildcats and civets have been photographed using burrow entrances as ambush positions for smaller prey.
Several reptile species also exploit pangolin burrows. Monitor lizards use them for thermoregulation. African rock pythons and puff adders have been recorded sheltering in abandoned dens. For birds, the pygmy falcon and various owl species — including the spotted eagle-owl — roost or nest in the enlarged entrance chambers of older burrow systems.
Inside the burrow itself, a distinct invertebrate community develops. Beetle species in the families Tenebrionidae and Scarabaeidae are commonly collected from burrow debris. Various spider species construct webs at burrow entrances or within tunnels. The coprophagous dung beetle community near burrow sites reflects the pangolin's regular use of a fixed latrine area — a behaviour that also concentrates soil nutrients locally and creates microhabitat heterogeneity.
The soft-bodied prey of pangolins — ants and termites — are obviously not commensals, but it is worth noting that the pangolin's foraging excavations regularly expose soil invertebrate communities that are subsequently exploited by fork-tailed drongos, oxpeckers, and various hornbill species following foraging pangolins in open savanna habitats.
Ectoparasite management is a routine challenge in pangolin rehabilitation. Newly admitted animals typically undergo full parasite screening. Tick removal requires care: scales must be gently lifted and soft skin folds inspected systematically. Chemical treatment options are limited because of uncertainty about acaricide safety at standard doses in pangolins — their unusual physiology means drug metabolism data from common mammals often does not transfer directly.
Understanding the commensal community also has practical value for captive care. Pangolins in rehabilitation show lower stress indicators when provided with burrow analogues — structures that replicate the thermal stability and sensory enclosure of a natural den. The importance of burrow habitat extends beyond shelter: it represents a key element of the animal's ecological identity.
The ectoparasite fauna of pangolins remains significantly underdescribed. Of the eight living pangolin species, detailed parasite surveys exist for only a handful, and most records come from opportunistic sampling of confiscated animals rather than systematic wild-population studies. The same applies to the commensal burrow community: most data derives from southern African populations of ground pangolins, with virtually nothing published on the burrow associates of tree pangolins (Phataginus tricuspis) or giant pangolins (Smutsia gigantea).
Filling these gaps matters beyond academic completeness. Parasite load is a recognised health indicator: elevated burdens in wild populations can signal habitat stress, nutritional deficiency, or increased human disturbance. Commensal species diversity offers a proxy for habitat quality — a site supporting an intact burrow community of secondary occupants is likely also supporting a functional prey base and stable vegetation structure for the pangolin itself.
As genetic and isotopic tracing techniques become more accessible, researchers are beginning to use the parasite community as an indirect tool for understanding pangolin movement ecology and population connectivity — an approach with real potential for monitoring cryptic species that are otherwise almost impossible to study in the field.
What ticks are found on pangolins?
Pangolins host several Ixodes and Amblyomma tick species. Amblyomma compressum is most commonly recorded on African pangolins, with Haemaphysalis species also documented on Asian pangolins.
Do pangolin parasites pose a zoonotic risk?
Some tick species on pangolins can carry pathogens transmissible to humans, particularly Rickettsia and Anaplasma bacteria. This is a public health concern given the illegal wildlife trade brings pangolins into close contact with people.
What animals share pangolin burrows?
Aardvarks often dig the original burrow that pangolins later occupy. Warthogs, bat-eared foxes, cape porcupines, and various snake species also use abandoned pangolin dens, making them important microhabitat hubs.
Why study pangolin ectoparasites?
Parasite surveys help assess wild population health, reveal stress indicators in captive animals, and identify potential pathogen spillover risks — all critical for conservation breeding and post-seizure rehabilitation protocols.